Civil Rights Act of 1964: What It Did
The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a United States federal law that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex or national origin in many areas of public life. It ended legal segregation in hotels, restaurants and other public accommodations, barred discrimination by employers and by programs receiving federal money, and strengthened the federal government’s power to enforce school desegregation. It was signed into law on July 2, 1964.
This page is a neutral historical summary. For the full text and official interpretation, consult the National Archives and the agencies named below.
Background
By the early 1960s, many Southern states and communities maintained racial segregation by law, and discrimination in employment and housing was common across the country. The Supreme Court’s 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education had held that racially segregated public schools were unconstitutional, but progress on desegregation was slow, and the ruling did not cover private businesses such as restaurants and hotels.
Throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s, sit-ins, boycotts, marches and legal challenges brought national attention to segregation and unequal treatment. The 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom was one of the largest demonstrations of the period. Proposals for a national civil rights law moved through Congress in 1963 and 1964. The bill passed the House of Representatives and then faced a long Senate debate that included a filibuster before it passed and was signed.
What the law contains
The act is divided into titles, each dealing with a different area.
| Title | Subject |
|---|---|
| I | Voting: limits on unequal application of voter registration rules |
| II | Public accommodations: no discrimination in hotels, restaurants, theaters and similar places |
| III | Public facilities: desegregation of government-run facilities such as parks |
| IV | Public education: federal help with desegregation of public schools |
| V | Commission on Civil Rights: powers of the existing commission |
| VI | Federally assisted programs: no discrimination in programs that receive federal funds |
| VII | Employment: prohibits employment discrimination, creates the EEOC |
Later titles deal with data collection, procedures, community relations and other matters.
Title II: public accommodations
Title II prohibits discrimination on grounds of race, color, religion or national origin in places that serve the public, such as hotels, restaurants, gas stations and entertainment venues. It excludes private clubs that are not open to the public. Its coverage of private businesses was challenged in court soon after passage. In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court upheld Title II as a valid use of Congress’s power to regulate interstate commerce, and Katzenbach v. McClung, decided the same year, applied the same reasoning to a restaurant.
Title VII: employment
Title VII bars employers from discriminating in hiring, firing, pay and other terms of employment because of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. It covers employers with a minimum number of employees (15 under current rules), labor unions and employment agencies. It created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), which receives complaints and enforces the law. The EEOC explains the statute on its Title VII page.
The word “sex” was included in the employment provisions during the legislative process, and historians continue to discuss how and why. Sources differ on the motives, so this page does not take a position.
How it has been changed and extended
The 1964 act has been amended and interpreted many times.
- The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 clarified that discrimination based on pregnancy is a form of sex discrimination under Title VII.
- The Civil Rights Act of 1991 amended Title VII, adding provisions on damages and the burden of proof in certain cases.
- In Bostock v. Clayton County (2020), the Supreme Court held that firing an employee for being gay or transgender violates Title VII’s ban on sex discrimination.
Other federal laws build on or sit alongside it, including the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the Fair Housing Act of 1968 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972, which concerns sex discrimination in education, is a separate law and not part of the 1964 act.
Enforcement in practice
Passing the law and applying it were different tasks. Title II relied on individual complaints and lawsuits, with the Attorney General able to bring cases in some circumstances. Title VI gave federal agencies a lever, since a school district, hospital or university that wanted federal funds had to show it was not discriminating. Title VII relied on the EEOC, which at first had limited enforcement powers and worked mostly through investigation and conciliation. Congress later extended its powers, including the 1972 amendments that allowed the agency to bring lawsuits in its own name.
Historians describe the effects as uneven across regions and sectors, and they use different measures, such as school integration, employment data and public attitudes. Readers interested in the numbers should consult the original datasets and academic studies rather than summaries.
Debate and interpretation
The act has been discussed from many angles since 1964, including the constitutional basis for regulating private business, the scope of employment protections, and the proper remedies for discrimination. Courts have interpreted its provisions in hundreds of cases, which is why legal sources distinguish the text of the statute from its judicial interpretation. This page does not weigh those arguments.
Common misunderstandings
- It did not cover everything. Housing discrimination was not addressed until 1968, and voting rights needed further legislation in 1965.
- It applies to government and certain businesses. It is not a general rule for every private activity, and exceptions exist, such as private clubs and religious organizations in some respects.
- Enforcement is gradual. Compliance came through complaints, lawsuits and agency action over years, not overnight.
Why it matters in history
The act is widely regarded as a turning point in the legal status of equal treatment in the United States. Historians continue to study its passage, its effects on workplaces and communities, and the debates about how far it reaches. The National Archives hosts the text of the act and background material.
Frequently asked questions
When was the Civil Rights Act of 1964 signed?
It was signed on July 2, 1964, after passing both houses of Congress.
What is Title VII?
Title VII is the part of the act that prohibits employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. The EEOC enforces it.
Does the act protect against hate speech?
Not as such. The act deals with discrimination in areas such as public accommodations and employment. Speech is addressed by other laws, and the overview of responding to hateful rhetoric online gives general background.
Was the act the end of the process?
No. Later laws and court decisions expanded and clarified protections, and debates about their scope continue.
More background on the site is on the home page.